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Microwave technique allows energy-efficient chemical reactions

Some industrial processes used to create useful chemicals require heat, but heating methods are often inefficient, partly because they heat a greater volume of space than they really need to. Researchers, including those from the University of Tokyo, devised a way to limit heating to the specific areas required in such situations. Their technique uses microwaves, not unlike those used in home microwave ovens, to excite specific elements dispersed in the materials to be heated. Their system proved to be around 4.5 times more efficient than current methods.

While there's more to climate change than power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2), reducing the need for the former and the output of the latter are critical matters that science and engineering strive to tackle. Under the broad banner of green transformation, Lecturer Fuminao Kishimoto from the Department of Chemical System Engineering at the University of Tokyo and his team explore ways to improve things like industrial processes. Their latest development could impact on some industries involved in chemical synthesis and may have some other positive offshoots. And their underlying idea is relatively straightforward.

"In most cases, chemical reactions occur only at very small, localized regions involving just a few atoms or molecules. This means that even within a large chemical reactor, only limited parts truly require energy input for the reaction," said Kishimoto.

"However, conventional heating methods, such as combustion or hot fluids, disperse thermal energy throughout the entire reactor. We started this research with the idea that microwaves could concentrate energy on a single atomic active site, a little like how a microwave oven heats food."

As Kishimoto mentions, the process is similar in concept to how a microwave oven works, only in this case, rather than having microwaves tuned to heat polar water molecules at around 2.45 gigahertz (which is also a common Wi-Fi frequency in case you've ever noticed that your internet connection becomes unstable when you're heating leftovers), their microwaves are tuned to much lower frequencies around 900 megahertz. This is because those are ideal to excite the material they wished to heat up, zeolite.

"The most challenging aspect was proving that only a single atomic active site was being heated by the microwaves. To achieve this, we spent four years developing a specialized experimental environment at Japan's world-class large synchrotron radiation facility, SPring-8," said Kishimoto.

"This involved using spongelike zeolite, which is ideal because we can control the sizes of the sponge cavities, allowing us to balance different factors of the reactions. Inside the sponge cavities, indium ions act like antennas. These are excited by the microwaves which creates heat, which can then be transferred to reaction materials passing through the sponge."

By selectively delivering heat to specific materials, lower overall temperatures can be used to achieve reactions which are otherwise very demanding, such as water decomposition or methane conversion, both useful to create fuel products. They can further improve selectivity by varying the pore size of the zeolite sponge, with smaller pores yielding greater efficiency and larger pores enabling greater control over reactions.

And one key advantage is that this technique can even be used in carbon capture, recycling CO2 as part of the methane conversion, and even recycle plastics more easily.

The challenge now will be how to scale this up to encourage industrial adoption things that work in the lab don't directly translate into large industrial settings easily. And there are some limitations to the research that would also need to be addressed first. The material requirements are quite complex and aren't simple or cheap to produce; it's hard to precisely measure temperatures at the atomic scale, so current data rely on indirect evidence and more direct means would be preferred. And, despite the improvements in efficiency, there is still room for improvement here too, as there are heat and electrical losses along the way.

"We aim to expand this concept to other important chemical reactions beyond CO2 conversion and to further optimize catalyst design to improve durability and scalability. The technology is still at the laboratory stage. Scaling up will require further development of catalysts, reactor design and integration with renewable power sources," said Kishimoto.

"While it is difficult to give an exact timeline, we expect pilot-scale demonstrations within the next decade, with broader industrial adoption depending on progress in both technology and energy infrastructure. To achieve this, we are seeking corporate partners to engage in joint development."

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Catalyst design strategy enhances green urea synthesis efficiency

A research team from the Hefei Institutes of Physical Science of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has constructed a copper (Cu) single-atom catalyst (Cu-N3 SAs) with a nitrogen-coordination structure. They used two-dimensional g-C3N4, derived from melamine pyrolysis, as a carrier to achieve efficient electrocatalytic urea synthesis under mild conditions.

Urea is mainly synthesized via the energy-intensive and highly polluting Bosch-Meiser process. Therefore, it is crucial to develop sustainable urea synthesis methods driven by clean energy. However, synthesizing urea via the electrocatalytic co-reduction of CO2 and NO3– still faces many challenges, including multi-electron reaction processes, complex C–N coupling reaction mechanisms, and competitive side reactions. These factors greatly reduce the efficiency of urea synthesis.

In this study, the researchers used a two-dimensional g-C3N4 carrier derived from melamine pyrolysis to stabilize copper atoms in a Cu–N3 coordination structure. Using a tandem impregnation–pyrolysis method, they constructed copper single-atom electrocatalysts (Cu–N3 SAs). Advanced characterization techniques, including X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), confirmed the precise atomic structure and electronic state of the catalysts.

The Cu–N3 SAs demonstrated exceptional activity, achieving a urea yield of 19,598 ± 1,821 mg h⁻¹ mgCu⁻¹ and a Faradaic efficiency of 55.4% at -0.9 V (vs. RHE). Further insights from in situ infrared spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy revealed that under reaction conditions, the Cu–N3 sites dynamically reconstruct into an N2–Cu–Cu–N2 configuration, which significantly boosts urea synthesis performance.

Complementary density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed that this reconstruction occurs within the ring structure of single-layer g-C3N4. The resulting copper bisite structure enhances CO adsorption, accelerates multi-electron transfer, and lowers the energy barrier for the crucial *CONH intermediate formation—the first C–N coupling step in urea production.

According to the researchers, this study provides important theoretical guidance for understanding the dynamic evolution of actual catalytic active sites in efficient urea electrolysis.

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Century-Old Mystery Solved: Scientists Measure a Fraction of an Electron, Unlocking the Secret to Catalysis

The discovery could significantly reduce the production costs of fuels, chemicals, and materials.

A research team from the University of Minnesota Twin Cities College of Science and Engineering and the University of Houston’s Cullen College of Engineering has identified, and for the first time measured, the tiny fraction of an electron that enables catalytic manufacturing.

Details of the work appear in the open access journal ACS Central Science. The results clarify why precious metals such as gold, silver and platinum are so effective in catalysis and offer guidance for creating next-generation catalytic materials.

Catalysts are substances that lower the energy needed for chemical reactions. By doing so, they help manufacturers increase yield, speed, and efficiency when making other materials. These tools are central to processes used in pharmaceutical and battery production, and in petrochemical operations such as crude oil refining, helping supply keep pace with demand.

Finding catalysts that work faster and are easier to control is a primary objective across the fuels, chemicals, and materials sectors, which together represent economies worth multiple trillions of dollars. Around the world, researchers are racing to develop catalysts that can reduce costs and improve manufacturing efficiency across many industries.

Understanding How Molecules Interact with Catalysts

As molecules approach a catalyst surface, they share their electrons with the catalytic metal (in this case, gold, silver, or platinum), thus stabilizing the molecules in such a way that the desired reactions occur. This concept has been theorized for over a century, but direct measurements of these tiny, highly consequential percentages of an electron have never been directly observed.

Researchers at the Center for Programmable Energy Catalysis, headquartered at the University of Minnesota, have now shown that electron sharing can be directly measured by a technique of their own invention called Isopotential Electron Titration (IET).

“Measuring fractions of an electron at these incredibly small scales provides the clearest view yet of the behavior of molecules on catalysts,” said Justin Hopkins, University of Minnesota chemical engineering Ph.D. student and lead author of the research study. “Historically, catalyst engineers relied on more indirect measurements at idealized conditions to understand molecules on surfaces. Instead, this new measurement method provides a tangible description of surface bonding at catalytically-relevant conditions.”

Determining the amount of electron transfer at a catalyst surface is key to understanding its performance. Molecules that are more prone to sharing their electrons bind stronger, with increasing reactivity, providing a directly measurable quantity for catalyst activity. Precious metals exhibit the precise extent of electron sharing with reacting molecules necessary to drive catalysis, even though this exchange has not been possible to directly measure until today.

The Power of Isopotential Electron Titration (IET)

IET can now serve as a tool for experimental description of new catalyst formulations, which will enable researchers to screen for and discover ideal catalytic substances more quickly going forward.

“IET allowed us to measure the fraction of an electron that is shared with a catalyst surface at levels even less than one percent, such as the case of a hydrogen atom on platinum,” said Omar Abdelrahman, corresponding author and an associate professor in University of Houston Cullen College of Engineering’s William A. Brookshire Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. “A hydrogen atom gives up only 0.2% of an electron when binding on platinum catalysts, but it’s that small percentage which makes it possible for hydrogen to react in industrial chemical manufacturing.”

With the emergence of nanotechnologies for synthesizing catalysts combined with new tools in machine learning to explore and utilize large datasets, engineers have identified large numbers of new catalytic materials. IET now enables a third method for directly characterizing new materials at a fundamental level.

“The foundation for new catalytic technologies for industry has always been fundamental basic research,” says Paul Dauenhauer, Distinguished Professor and director of the Center for Programmable Energy Catalysis at the University of Minnesota. “This new discovery of fractional electron distribution establishes an entirely new scientific foundation for understanding catalysts that we believe will drive new energy technologies over the next several decades.”

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Scientists Deliberately Add Defects to Graphene, Unlocking New Powers

Scientists grew defective graphene using Azupyrene, making it more useful for sensors and semiconductors. The defects alter how the material interacts with other substances.

Researchers have discovered a new approach to producing graphene that intentionally incorporates structural defects, enhancing the material’s performance. This advancement could broaden its usefulness across fields such as sensors, batteries, and electronic devices.

A team from the University of Nottingham’s School of Chemistry, the University of Warwick, and Diamond Light Source has created a one-step technique to grow graphene-like films. The method uses a molecule called Azupyrene, whose structure naturally mirrors the type of defect they wanted to introduce. Their findings were published in the journal Chemical Science.

David Duncan, Associate Professor from the University of Nottingham was one of the lead authors on the study, he says: “Our study explores a new way to make graphene, this super-thin, super-strong material is made of carbon atoms, and while perfect graphene is remarkable, it is sometimes too perfect. It interacts weakly with other materials and lacks crucial electronic properties required in the semiconductor industry.

How molecular design shapes graphene

“Usually, defects in material are seen as problems or mistakes that reduce performance; we have used them intentionally to add functionality. We found that the defects can make the graphene more “sticky” to other materials, making it more useful as a catalyst, as well as improving its capability of detecting different gases for use in sensors. The defects can also alter the electronic and magnetic properties of the graphene, for potential applications in the semiconductor industry.”

Graphene consists of a flat arrangement of carbon atoms arranged in six-membered rings. The targeted defect introduces neighboring rings made up of five and seven carbon atoms. Because Azupyrene already has a geometry (or topology) that includes this irregular ring structure, it was used to grow graphene films containing a high proportion of these defects. By adjusting the temperature during growth, the researchers were also able to control how many defects appeared in the final material.

Scientists at the Graphene Institute in Manchester showed that the defective graphene films could be successfully moved onto a variety of surfaces while keeping the defects intact. This marks an important step forward in making the material suitable for integration into practical devices.

Collaboration and advanced techniques

This work used a wide range of advanced tools, bringing together a collaboration across the UK, Germany and Sweden using advanced microscopy and spectroscopy at Diamond Light Source in Oxfordshire and MAX IV in Sweden, as well as the UK national supercomputer ARCHER2, allowing the researchers to study the atomic structure of the defective graphene, demonstrating that the defects were present, and how the defects affected the chemical and electronic properties of the defective graphene.

Professor Reinhard Maurer, Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, says: “By carefully choosing the starting molecule and the growth conditions, we’ve shown it’s possible to grow graphene in which imperfections can be introduced in a more controlled way. We characterize the signatures of these imperfections by bringing together atomic-scale imaging, spectroscopy, and computational simulation.”

“This study is a testament to what can be achieved through international collaboration and the integration of diverse scientific expertise,” said Dr. Tien-Lin Lee from Diamond Light Source. “By combining advanced microscopy, spectroscopy, and computational modelling across institutions in the UK, Germany, and Sweden, we were able to uncover the atomic-scale mechanisms behind defect formation in graphene, something no single technique or team could have achieved alone.”

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Unlocking the Invisible: The Power of Analytical Chemistry in Modern Science

In the vast world of chemistry, analytical chemistry often works behind the scenes quietly, precisely, and critically. While it may not always grab the headlines like flashy chemical reactions or explosive discoveries, analytical chemistry is the foundation upon which much of modern science, medicine, and industry is built.

What Is Analytical Chemistry?

Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the identification and quantification of materials. Whether it’s detecting trace amounts of toxins in drinking water, determining the purity of pharmaceuticals, or monitoring environmental pollutants, analytical chemists are the detectives of the scientific world.

There are two main branches:

• Qualitative analysis: Determines what is present.

• Quantitative analysis: Measures how much is present.

Techniques That Define the Field

Analytical chemistry is driven by powerful instruments and meticulous methods. Some of the most widely used techniques include:

• Chromatography (GC, HPLC): Separates complex mixtures for individual analysis.

• Spectroscopy (UV-Vis, IR, NMR, AAS): Uses light and energy interactions to identify substances.

• Mass Spectrometry (MS): Determines molecular weights and structures with extreme precision.

• Titration: A classic wet chemistry technique used for concentration determination.

• Electrochemical Analysis: Measures electrical properties to study chemical reactions.

These tools have evolved rapidly, and today’s instruments can detect substances at incredibly low concentrations—even parts per trillion.

Why Analytical Chemistry Matters

1. Healthcare and Medicine
   Diagnostic tests (like blood analysis) rely on analytical techniques to detect disease markers, monitor glucose levels, and ensure drug safety.

2. Environmental Protection
   Analytical chemists monitor air, water, and soil for pollutants and help enforce environmental regulations.

3. Food Safety
   From pesticide residues to nutritional content, analytical methods ensure the food we eat is safe and correctly labeled.

4. Pharmaceuticals
   Every drug must undergo rigorous testing for purity, potency, and stability all guided by analytical chemistry.

5. Forensic Science
   Crime labs use analytical methods to analyze substances like blood, drugs, and fibers, helping solve criminal cases.

The Future of Analytical Chemistry

The field is rapidly expanding with advancements in:

• Miniaturization (portable analyzers and lab-on-a-chip devices)

• Automation and AI-driven analysis

• Green analytical chemistry, reducing the use of harmful chemicals

• Real-time, in-field monitoring (e.g., wearable biosensors)

These innovations are making analytical chemistry more accessible, faster, and environmentally friendly.

Final Thoughts

Analytical chemistry may not always be glamorous, but it's indispensable. It provides the data that drives decisions in science, policy, healthcare, and industry. As challenges like climate change, pandemics, and resource scarcity grow, so too will the need for precise, reliable chemical analysis.

So, the next time you take a pill, drink clean water, or read about a scientific breakthrough remember, analytical chemistry was probably there, working quietly in the background to make it possible.

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Scientists home in on alternatives to ‘forever chemicals

Harmful and persistent “forever chemicals” build up in the environment and in the bodies of animals including humans. But a new review article lays out a blueprint for replacing those chemicals in certain situations.

A research team has compiled more than a decade’s worth of work from multiple labs to detail chemical principles of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, otherwise known as PFAS. PFAS show up in products as varied as firefighting foams, nonstick cookware and stain-resistant fabrics.

PFAS usually contain long chains of carbon atoms. Depending on the chemical, most or all of the carbon atoms have strong bonds to one or more fluorine atoms. Mixed with water, some PFAS act as surfactants, which cause water droplets to spread out rather than beading up, even in the presence of oily chemicals where water normally wouldn’t mix. This behavior relies on properties known as surface energy and surface tension. Molecules in a material with low surface energy or surface tension don’t mind being at the surface of a solid or a droplet of liquid, where come in contact with something dissimilar. PFAS surfactants lower the surface tension of water, so they excel in applications like foams that fight gasoline or grease fires.

Alternatively, when used as solid coatings, PFAS force liquids on a surface to bead up into droplets rather than spreading out, which gives PFAS-coated materials like nonstick pans their water- and oil-repelling properties.

But the strong carbon-fluorine bonds in PFAS don’t break down easily, says Julian Eastoe, an interface scientist at the University of Bristol in England. The chemicals steadily accumulate in the environment and in our bodies, a buildup that “can be considered as one of the great ticking time bombs in our civilization,” Eastoe says. PFAS have been linked to a range of health issues, from high cholesterol to cancer. Some researchers are investigating how to break down PFAS in the environment, while others like Eastoe are developing fluorine-free alternatives.

To replace PFAS, scientists need to find a way to keep a material’s surface energy low without invoking fluorine. Eastoe and colleagues report that for PFAS acting as surfactants, chains of mostly carbon and silicon atoms with a bulky, tree branch–like structure can take the place of fluorine-rich fragments.

The researchers determined the surface tension of solutions containing water and the fluorine-free surfactants at different concentrations, usually by measuring the force required to pull a metal plate out of each solution. These tests suggest that the surfactants’ “branches” pack tightly at the surface of a water droplet to reduce the surface tension. Some of the best-performing alternatives reduced the water’s surface tension about as well as PFAS surfactants in use today.

It’s much harder, however, to compete with PFAS in oil-repelling applications. Oils typically spread out easily, so designing a surface coating that rebuffs oils would require a material with a very low surface energy a difficult feat without invoking fluorine, says Kevin Golovin, a mechanical engineer at the University of Toronto who was not involved in the work. To effectively repel oils with fluorine-free surfaces, “we really do need a breakthrough.”

Still, the research could facilitate a transition away from PFAS in certain applications and could help counter perceptions that PFAS cannot be replaced, says Martin Scheringer, a chemist at ETH Zurich who was not involved in the work. “We need scientists, chemists and materials scientists, who break out of that PFAS track.”

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